Most venous malformations are asymptomatic, though pain is caused by local compression of adjacent structures, thrombosis caused by venous stasis, or hemorrhage into surrounding tissues or joint spaces is not uncommon.
大多数静脉畸形是无症状的，虽然疼痛是由于邻近结构的局部压迫，静脉淤积引起的血栓形成，而进入周围组织或关节间隙的出血并不少见。
Enlargement of a venous malformation following trauma, puberty, or during pregnancy may also trigger symptoms.
创伤后、青春期或妊娠期间静脉畸形的增大也可能引发症状。
Physical examination may reveal a soft compressible mass with a bluish to purple hue.
体格检查可能会发现一个带有蓝色到紫色色调的软可压缩肿块。
Palpable phleboliths and thrombi may also be present.
也可能存在明显静脉炎和血栓。
A Valsalva maneuver may enlarge the venous malformation or simply the venous malformation may enlarge when in a dependent position.
Valsalva可能引起静脉畸形扩大或简单的静脉畸形可能出现依赖的位置扩大。
Physical findings such as hyperemia, pulsatility, and a palpable thrill should lead one to consider alternative diagnoses.
体检发现，如充血、搏动和触到震颤应该考虑其它诊断。
The slow-flow hemodynamics and abnormal venous architecture of venous malformations often trigger thrombosis.
静脉畸形的缓慢血流血流动力学和异常的静脉结构常引发血栓形成。
Recurrent induction of the coagulation cascade depletes coagulation factors and increases fibrinolysis.
反复诱导凝血会消耗凝血因子，增加纤维蛋白溶解。
Continual thrombus turnover within venous malformations may lead to localized intravascular coagulopathy, characterized by decreased plasma fibrinogen, factor V, factor VIII, factor XIII, and increased D-dimer.
静脉畸形内持续血栓转换可导致局部血管内凝血功能障碍，其特征是血浆纤维蛋白原、因子V、因子VIII、XIII因子减少和d-二聚体增加。
Localized intravascular coagulopathy increases the risk of intralesional thrombosis and peri-interventional risk for severe hemorrhage, as it may progress to disseminated intravascular coagulation.
局部性血管内凝血功能障碍增加了病变内血栓形成的风险和围手术期严重出血的风险，因为它可能进展为弥散性血管内凝血。
Additionally, in severe cases of localized intravascular coagulopathy (D-dimer >1.8 µg/mL), fibrinogen levels may also be markedly low.
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此外，在局部血管内凝血功能障碍的严重病例中(D-二聚体＞1.8µg/mL)，纤维蛋白原水平也可能明显较低。
Clinically, an elevated D-dimer may be a useful marker of localized intravascular coagulopathy if the patient is otherwise free of confounding comorbidities such as pulmonary embolism, malignancy, or inflammatory diseases.
在临床上，如果患者没有肺栓塞、恶性肿瘤或炎症性疾病等并发症，D-二聚体升高可能是局部血管内凝血功能障碍的有用标志。
D-dimer elevations have been reported in 33%-42% of patients, and are most common in large, multifocal venous malformations with palpable phleboliths or in patients with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome.
D-二聚体升高在33%-42%的患者中被报道，最常见的是可触及静脉的大型多灶性静脉畸形或Klippel-Trenaunay综合征患者。
In patients with large venous malformations, it is critical to obtain a coagulation profile, platelet count, fibrinogen, and D-dimer levels in the preprocedural setting.
对于患有大静脉畸形的患者，在术前获得凝血检查、血小板计数、纤维蛋白原和D-二聚体水平是至关重要的。
Though venous malformations are typically found in isolation, they may be associated with syndromes other than VMCM, BRBNS, and GVM, including Maffucci, Klippel-Trenaunay, Gorham-Stout, Parkes-Weber, Sturge-Weber, Capillary malformation-Arteriovenous malformation, familial cerebral venous malformation Bockenheimer, Proteus, Bannayan-Riley-Ruvalcaba, and CLOVE/S syndrome.
虽然静脉畸形通常是孤立发现的，但它们可能与VMCM、BRBNS和GVM以外的综合征有关，包括Maffucci、 Klippel-Trenaunay、Gorham-Stout、Parkes-Weber、毛细血管畸形-动脉静脉畸形、家族性脑静脉畸形，Bockenheimer静脉畸形、Proteus、Bannayan-Riley-Ruvalcaba 和CLOVE/S 综合征。
Additionally, while venous malformations most often occur as a solitary lesion, they may be accompanied by other vascular malformations including lymphatic, capillary, and arteriovenous malformations.
此外，虽然静脉畸形最常发生为一个孤立性的病变，但它们可能伴有其他血管畸形，包括淋巴管、毛细血管和动静脉畸形。
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